04-09-07, Physiology class notes

Leukemia is the cancer of blood and/or bone marrow with abnormal proliferation of leukocytes. Hematological neoplasms can be leukemias. Leukemia can cause internal symptoms like enlarged livers and enlarged spleen, swollen tonsils, etc. Chronic leukemia is where the leukocytes grow to maturity but remain in the system whereas acute leukemia is where there is a rapid buildup of new leukocytes.

Salivary amylase is found in the salivary glands and it breaks down carbohydrates and other sugars (the byproducts are disaccharides) with action taking place in the mouth. In the stomach, the gastric glands secrete pepsin that breaks down proteins to produce the constituent amino acids. The liver secretes bile, which breaks down fats and lipids into emulsified fats (secreted into the small intestine). The small intestine secretes maltase, lactase, and sucrase to break down carbohydrates into simple sugars. The pancreas secretes (into the small intestine) trypsin, lipase, and amylase, which break down proteins, fats/lipids, carbohydrates into amino acids, glycerol, fatty acids, and simple sugars.

The bacteria is first attacked by the immune system until the bacteria begins to eat away at the tissues resulting in reduced lung capacity. There is pulmonary infiltration and caving formations that occur. Treatment takes six to nine months with four different antibiotics.

Chromatids, homologous chromosomes, trypsin, sucrase, maltose, trypsin, lipase, amylase, phloem, xylem, cystic duct, liver, gallbladder, esophagus, stomach, common bile duct, pancreas, pancreatic duct, small intestine … see the test from first period AP Biology today as well as the Peterson AP review book.

Review in class tomorrow (April 10^th) or we will finish up the notes tomorrow. The test will be on Wednesday the 11^th over the digestive system. Memorize the chart. After this we will move on to the urinary system maybe. The AP Biology portfolio is due Thursday. Test today in calculus class (part two). The Unit 13 Study Packet is due in the history class today. The chemistry Agatha Christie book has to be read by today or something like that—there is also an exam review to do for the class that is worth 10 extra points on the exam. Try registering on the CollegeBoard AP mailing lists.

Goiter - the enlargement of the thyroid gland. The thyroid gland produces thyroxine (T4) and a little bit of triodothyronine (T3) hormones. These hormones influence bodily functions like temperature, mood, pulse rate, digestive functions and other processes necessary for life.

There are different types of goiter. Endemic goiter is caused not getting enough iodine (I) in the diet (the iodine can sometimes be found in some salts). Hypothyroidism is where the thyroid is over stimulated. There are hormone tests, antibody tests, thyroid scans, MRI, ultrasounds, and even simple physical exams. Levothyroxine is one of the medications that could be taken.

What are the different types of ultrasound machines? Are there any “do-it-yourself” ultrasound machines? What about the MRI and fMRI machines? How are those built and designed? What about the CT scanners? How do we collect the information to assemble the metabolic maps like we see in Garret and Grisham's second edition biochemistry book? Those are very complicated and I doubt that we do it only by hand, are there any automated computational methods and are there any hardware automation methods that we use to process through proteins to test for the pathways?

Cystic fibrosis is common genetic disease which affects the entire body - it refers to the characteristic scarring (fibrosis) and cyst formation, first recognized in the pancreas in the 1930s. It is prevalent in Caucasian and Ahskenazi Jews (what??).

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) - this gene helps create sweat, digestion juices, and mucus. Cystic fibrosis when neither of the two genes required to prevent it are activated.

Cystic fibrosis affects the body through various respiratory infections, such as: recurrent pneumonia, pneumonothorax, coughing up blood, cor pulmonale, liver disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, arthritis, polyp in the nose, toe nails with loss of the shallow groove between the bottom of the nail and the skin (clubbing), enlarged liver and spleen, infertility because of thicker mucus making fertilization difficult in women, etc. etc.

There are more than one thousand mutations of the cystic fibrosis gene. Cystic fibrosis is seen where we the nail bed of the finger is cured rather than at an angle, and then there are also respiratory problems because of the different mucus concentration. There is no known cure for cystic fibrosis.

1938 - Anderson and Hodges proposed autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance of cystic fibrosis in 1946, mainly contained to the pancreatic dysfunction. Paul di Sant Agnese, 1953, sweat electrolytes, sweat testing, primary diagnostic test for cystic fibrosis.

Note that Gardner says that he has been keeping notebooks and journals for numerous years … he keeps track of where he found words, what they mean, the page numbers, the sentence in which he found it, and so on. He does this for every word that he comes across. This same process can be done while I read through the chemistry books. Also, I can do the same when looking through sources and citations of the library databases or whatever for scientific paper gateways. Simultaneously it would be intelligent to insert all of this data and information into SuperMemo. Get back to using hnb.

Notes on the digestive system (yes, this is a continuation of the notes that are found in the 40 megabyte file with all of the diagrams)

Most nutrients are absorbed into the circulatory system through cells lining the small intestines. The internal surface of the intestine is lined with fingerlike projections called villi. The purpose of these projected villi is to increase the surface area such that more nutrients can be absorbed.

The cells covering the villi, in turn have extensions on their cell membranes called microvilli (which furthermore increase surface area). Nutrients are absorbed through capillaries and small lymph vessels called lacteals in the villi. So what is going to happen is that nutrients are going to flow into the villi and then they will flow towards the capillaries and the lacteals.

Capillaries absorb the carbohydrates (monosaccharides) and proteins (amino acids) and are carried to the liver. The capillaries are going to absorb the glucose monosaccharide. So the proteins and carbohydrates absorbed by the lacteals are delivered to the liver.

The liver neutralizes many toxic substances in the blood and removes excess glucose, converting it to glycogen ( a polysacharride ) for storage. The removal of glucose from a molecule is going to be producing glycogen in this case.

So the food goes into the small intestine, and hits the villi, and then hit the microvilli which guides the food through the enderocytes or entocytes or whatever we want to call them, and then they go to the capillaries to go to the respiratory system or to the lacteals to go to the lymph nodes and so on. The capillaries are going to transport monosacharrides like glucose to the liver. When they do get to the liver, the liver is going to be removing excess glucose and converting it all to glycogen, a polysacharride used for storage. The filled blood then carries the nutrients to all the parts of the body.

The lacteals absorb glycerol and fatty acids, which are carried through the lymph vessels and eventually to the bloodstream through lymphatic vessels near the heart.

Undigested material leaves the small intestine through a valve and enters the large intestine or colon. There are four parts of the large intestine: ascending colon, the transverse colon (which goes across), the descending colon, and then the Sigmoid colon (“named after the famous psychologist Freud”).

The large intestine is six centimeters wide and 1.5 meters long. It is little over twice as wide as the small intestine. The large intestine absorbs water from the material remaining in the digestive tract. Water-soluble vitamins are absorbed along with the water. When most of the water has been removed from the undigested material, a solid waste matter, called feces, remains. Peristalsis propels the feces through the large intestine and into the rectum, the last few inches of the large intestine. Feces are then collected in the rectum are eliminated through the anus.

“Chemistry - Organic - Solomons, Graham - Fundamentals Of Organic Chemistry.pdf” is a really good book on the hard drive.

Mouth -> teeth -> pharynx -> esophagus -> cardiac sphincter -> stomach -> paloric sphincter -> small intestine: duodenum, jejunum, ileum -> valve? -> ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, Sigmoid colon -> rectum -> anus

Site of enzyme origin, enzyme, nutrient being broken down, product, place of enzyme action: salivary amylase, lipase, bile, pepsin, trypsin.

Discuss the two features that allow stomach epithelial cells to survive in the hostile environment that they do (acidic, etc.).