Meat on a stick

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Introduction

Using stem cells, tissue engineering and a variety of techniques, scientists have been working on a way to grow meat (read: food) in the lab, in a box, typically on a stick. The idea here is that meat can be grown without an entire bulky animal such as a cow or pig.

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Immune system problems

2008-03-13: The probelm with having a chamber full of raw meat made out of stem cells is that you have to protect it from the intrusion of pathogens and toxins. At first glance, this may seem like an intractable problem, since it would demand the creation of an immune system or at least the artificial control of anotherwise healthy immune system. However, while this may be the case, meat can be frozen. Because it can be frozen, reserves can be built up while the meat is healthy, and then a portion of the energy reserves can always be used to help fight a current infection spreading through "active bioreactors" (the active meat tanks). Separation techniques would be used, of course, to try to kill meat before the infection spreads too far, to isolate contaminated regions, and so on, and then to isolate and characterize the disease. With reserves and the ability to reboot from "clean slates" most of these problems are avoided. But what about when you are accessing the reserves? Could not contaminants enter the reserves and infect the supplies? The ideal solution is to have a 'self replication bubble' that stores the meat-supply, such that when you need a portion of it, the bubble uses some of its own meat-stored energy to construct a new bubble, and then releases it past the membrane, allowing nothing else in in the process (a bubble coming out of another bubble usually means that the two bubbles can 'separate' such as a mother from her child via the umbelical cord). However, in the mean time, until we can find such a 'self-replcating bubble' and 'pressurized food transfer system' -- we will have to keep with just tracking down pathogens and characterizing them and keeping freezer supply tanks clean at all costs. The assumption here is that if we froze meat now, the supply is at a standard of 'good' (and I think that is reasonable to say). -- Kanzure 10:39, 13 March 2008 (CDT)

We may want to mimic the bacteria in the stomachs of cows, as a way of processing grass and so on. -- Kanzure 10:39, 13 March 2008 (CDT)
Stomach-bacteria project -- to isolate, characterize, and sequence bacteria living inside the stomachs of cows, humans, etc. (anything in our direct food chain to the sun). Also, biochemical reaction studies too. -- Kanzure 09:00, 14 March 2008 (CDT)
I don't see the problem. People have lots of experience dealing with a) sterile food systems, b) sterile bacterial and cell culture systems. With the application of the large scale laboratory equipment things could be kept sterile at all times. --Dan 12:36, 14 March 2008 (CDT)
I don't think that is possible. In one possible construction of the system, you would load up grass as the input. This grass could contain all sorts of nasty pathogens. It would definitely contaminate the system. -- Kanzure 15:01, 14 March 2008 (CDT)
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Direct biochemical reaction alternatives

2008-03-13: Why not directly characterize the biochemical pathways that allow the construction of the materials and foods that the human stomach works off of? Then, instead of running it through all of the life-processes of the myocytes (meat cels), simply run the biochemical reactions in batch processing. This would hook up with the holy grail known as artificial photosynthesis -- supply oxygen, carbon and a few other molecules, and get out glucose and other sugars and basically the possibility to make any biomolecule. -- Kanzure 10:39, 13 March 2008 (CDT)

  • Food reactions (the biochemical pathways used to construct human food)
    • Determine via looking up in the genome databases and biochem-pathway databases what the possible reactions are. Has anybody synthesized glucose from scratch? What about all of the other nutrients that hu bods need?
  • Artificial photosynthesis
    • Not just solar cells. A way to take in carbon, oxygen, and other particles, combine them via energy, and possibly take in some electrons from the atmosphere if available.
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Orion's Arm

From OA's take on artificial meat production:

Vat-grown, or printed, meat products are produced using the same basic techniques as other forms of printed tissue culture. Tissue engineering of this type was first developed for medical use in the production of autologous tissue for organ replacement. However this sort of tissue culture was soon found to be useful for the direct production of meat for food on spacecraft and habitats in deep space. See bioforgery.To achieve the goal of meat production, muscle and other flesh cells are grown on a specially constructed biopolymer scaffold, which replicates the natural extracellular matrix found in living animals. This scaffold is generally printed using a rapid 3d printer device, although several other related techniques such as foaming and self-assembly are also used. Cultured cells are then implanted into the scaffolding, and these cells are induced to bind together into muscle-like or vascular tissue. Once the meat block, known as `slab', is established, the tissue is supplied with nutrients and allowed to grow by as much as 400% by volume before harvesting. To ensure the slab has a healthy texture it is stimulated into regular contractions, simulating exercise; the slab is attached at each end to strain gauges to measure the force of contraction. Each slab is connected to a generous supply of nutrient fluid often closely resembling blood.
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Notes

  • Artificial cells, tissues and organs over at Foresight
    • Drug pump on a lab on a chip
      • ROSSLYN, Va., March 20, 1997---Biomedical engineers have built a prototype drug pump the size of a contact lens, a miniature, closed-loop implant that could monitor its own flow rate to ensure a steady stream of medicine.
      • The pump is still considered large as a microelectromechanical system, in which sensors, actuators and electronics are merged onto a single silicon wafer. The next step will be to shrink the device so it can be mass produced like a computer chip.
      • the laboratory of Whitaker Investigator Michael Huff at Case Western Reserve University
      • `Huff's prototype consists of a rectangular silicon chamber with one of the outer walls made of two thin layers of a titanium-nickel alloy sandwiched around a layer of silicon. The alloy forcefully changes shape when heated to around 60 degrees Celsius (140 F.). "When these materials recover their shape, they can produce very large displacements and forces," Huff said. To operate the pump, rhythmic pulses of mild electrical current are passed directly through the alloy, setting up a cycle of heating and cooling that causes the metal to flex. This forces the chamber to expand and contract. The expansion pulls fluid into the chamber through an intake valve, and the contraction expels the fluid through an exhaust valve. The flow sensor is made up of a heater that raises the temperature of the fluid at one point in the flow stream. Two heat sensors downstream detect this hot spot as it passes by. From this measurement the flow rate can be calculated.`
    • Tissue engineering - UT Austin - Christine E. Schmidt
      • One of the major strategies adopted for the creation of new tissues is the growth of isolated cells on three-dimensional templates or scaffolds (matrices) under conditions that will coax the cells to develop into a functional tissue (Figure 1). When implanted, this bioartificial tissue should become structurally and functionally integrated into the body. The matrices can be fashioned from natural materials such as collagen or from synthetic polymers such as plastics. Ultimately, the scaffold material should be biodegradable over time and should simply serve as an initial three-dimensional template for tissue growth.
      • The major challenge in tissue engineering has been accurately imitating nature. To do this, scientists must understand: (1) the biology of the organ to be replaced; (2) the spatial organization of the organ; (3) the biology and physical limitations of the tissues surrounding the organ; (4) the limitations of in vitro (laboratory) culture techniques; (5) the chemistry of creating an appropriate scaffold; (6) the physical and biochemical interactions of isolated cells with the scaffold material; and (7) the required mechanical properties of the scaffold. Scientists involved with tissue engineering efforts must interact with many other scientists (biologists, biomechanical engineers, physicians, and polymer chemists) to accomplish the seemingly impossible feat of recreating what only nature has accomplished.
    • Tissue engineering companies
      • Aastrom - Aastrom develops clinical systems for the practical enablement of ex vivo cell production and genetic modification of cells used in transplantion therapies for treatment of cancer, infectious diseases, and the restoration of tissues.
      • Advanced Tissue Sciences, Inc. - Advanced Tissue Sciences is a tissue engineering company that develops and manufactures human-based tissue products for tissue repair and transplantation. Current technologies range from skin to cartilage, and products for cardiovascular applications are in development.
      • Automated Cell, Inc. - Automated Cell, Inc. provides discovery services to the pharmaceutical and biotechnology markets using their automated cell biology tools and informatics for improving the productivity of therapeutic development in cell therapy and drug discovery. Automated Cell's strengths are cell biology, imaging processing, robotics, fluidics, and bioinformatics.
      • Biosyntech - Biosyntech designs and manufactures advanced biosensing appartatus, including in-vitro testing equipment for electrical and mechanical testing of small biomaterials samples, and medical devices.
      • BioTissue Technologies - BioTissue Technologies focuses on autologous cell transplant systems for tissue engineering applications.
      • CaP Biotechnology - CaP Biotechnology is developing advanced calcium phosphate materials and devices for biomedical and biotechnological applications.
      • Celldyne - Celdyne manufactures hydrofocusing bioreactors (HFB), a new technology that enables three- dimensional cell culture and tissue engineering investigations both in laboratories on Earth and on orbiting spacecraft.
      • Celox Laboratories - Celox Laboratories, Inc.provides serum free cell culture and cryopreservation technologies. This technology allows for the effective study of hormones, growth factors, mitogens, etc., as it relates to cell therapy and tissue regeneration.
      • Cohesion Technologies - Cohesion Technologies offers sterile non-pyrogenic purified bovine collagen products produced from a closed herd source in the U.S. Their products are sold for use in cell culture and biochemistry applications, and as raw materials to be used by industry for the manufacture of medical products.
      • Creative Biotechnologies - Creative BioMolecules is a biopharmaceutical company focused on the discovery and development of therapies for human tissue regeneration and repair. The Company's therapies are based on bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) that act in initiating and regulating the cellular events involved in the development and repair of human tissues and organs.
      • ETEX - Etex developes products that promote bone tissue repair including biomimetic bone substitutes, therapuetic delivery, and surface coatings.
      • The Genetics Institute - The primary focus of the Genetics Institute is the discovery of new proteins with therapeutic utilities. Current research activities include major efforts in the fields of hematopoiesis, immunology, inflammation, autoimmune disease, coagulation, tissue repair and tissue biogenesis.
      • Integra Life Sciences - Integra is a technology consolidator that develops, manufactures and markets medical devices and tissue engineered products. These products are primarily used in the treatment of spinal and cranial disorders, burns and skin defects, orthopedics and other surgical applications.
      • Interpore - Interpore is focused primarily on solutions for spinal surgery. Their synthetic bone and tissue products are derived from marine coral using a manufacturing process that converts the unique skeletal structures of the coral into biocompatible bone graft substitute materials. Interpore has also introduced products which may be used to concentrate the patient's own platelet rich plasma during a surgical procedure to induce the initiation of the healing process at the surgical site.
      • Istotech - Isto is a biotechnology company focused on tissue regeneration of cartilage and bone.
      • Isotis - IsoTis' mission is to fulfill the increasing need for human tissue and organ replacement by bridging the gap between materials science, tissue engineering and biotechnology. The company's most advanced programs focus on the growth of bone, skin, and recently cartilage. Additional pilot programs are underway for muscle, nerve and connective tissue.
      • Layton BioScience, Inc. - Layton BioScience is a development stage company focusing on developing novel therapeutics for treating diseases of the central nervous system. One of their most advanced programs involves implantation of LBS-Neurons for the treatment of fixed neurological deficit resulting from stroke.
      • Microfab Technologies - MicroFab develops microdispensing and precision printing apparatus for a wide range of industries and applications. Within their Biomedical Applications Laboratory, they are developing print station technology for printing bioactive materials including DNA, proteins, reagents, and biomaterials.
      • Molecular Geodesics, Inc. - MGI develops applications of biomimetics, an emerging new field which creates breakthrough advances in material, device, and manufacturing process design through biological mimicry.
      • Organogenesis, Inc. - Organogenesis Inc. designs, develops and manufactures medical products containing living cells and/or natural connective tissue. Their product development focus includes living tissue replacements, cell-based organ assist devices and other tissue-engineered products.
      • Orquest, Inc. - Orquest has developed a portfolio of uniquely integrated products for orthopedic care using biological solutions that promote the body's natural healing mechanisms. The company's products encompass the major segments in orthopedics including spinal surgery, fractures, and cartilage repair.
      • Orthovita - Orthovita is a biomaterials company with the goal to provide the perfect match of solutions for both types of human bone composition, cancellous and cortical.
      • Osiris Therapeutics - Osiris is engaged in the development and commercialization of cellular therapeutic products for the regeneration and functional restoration of damaged or diseased tissue. The Company's technology is based on the use of human mesenchymal stem cells, the progenitor cells that form connective tissues (e.g., bone, cartilage, tendon, ligament, bone marrow stroma, fat and muscle).
      • OsteoBiologics, Inc. - OsteoBiologics develops and manufactures bioabsorbable tissue-engineering scaffolds for the repair and replacement of musculoskeletal tissues including articular cartilage and bone. To complement the development of their cartilage repair products, they have also developed a cartilage diagnostic instrumentation system that determines the degree and scope of articular cartilage degeneration.
      • Regen Biologics, Inc. - REGEN Biologics designs and develops minimally invasive systems for the repair and regeneration of damaged or degenerating cartilage. They have developed several forms of collagen as well as tissue-matrix engineering processes to fabricate resorbable and self-expanding matrices to guide natural tissue regeneration.
      • Regeron Pharmaceuticals - Regeneron applys molecular and cell biology to the search for novel human therapeutics. Regeneron uses its expertise in growth factors and their mechanisms of action to discover and develop protein-based and small molecule drugs.
      • Resolution Sciences Corp. - An image informatics company specializing in high-fidelity three-dimensional imaging of tissue and manufactured materials including biopolymers for tissue engineering. The company has developed a proprietary technology for converting unprecedented volumes of biomedical research and clinical pathology tissues into accurate digital data for visualization and quantitative analysis.
      • Selective Genetics - Selective Genetics is a San Diego company engaged in the development of highly-localized, site-specific gene therapy products for tissue repair and regeneration. Selective Genetics' gene therapeutic applications include complex fractures and spinal fusion, soft tissue wound repair (e.g. diabetic ulcers), revascularization of cardiac and peripheral arteries and nerve regeneration.
      • SoloHill Engineering, Inc. - SoloHill Engineering provides the medical, biomedical and research industries with advanced microcarriers for cell culture; biofilters that separate media, harvested cells and microcarriers; calibration standards for automatic inspection machines (AIM).
      • Synthecon - Synthecon provides Rotary Cell Culture Systems (RCCS), also referred to as a Microgravity Bioreactors, that efficiently create environments that enable extremely fragile, three-dimensional cell cultures to grow into complex cell masses and tissue models which mimic or model the structure and function of the parent tissue.
      • Therics - Therics' microfabrication process, TheriForm, is an advanced printing process with tht capability to spatially control, with extreme precision, the dosage and placement of multiple materials into complex three-dimensional constructs for tisssue engineering applications. The process provides a high degree of flexibility in the design of product characteristics such as: Macro and microarchitecture Material compositions Internal and external surface textures
      • Tissue Informatics - TissueInformatics.Inc transforms information from human, plant and animal tissue into knowledge utilizing advanced digital imaging technologies, quantitative analysis and multi-dimensional databases for pharmaceutical, tissue engineering, genomics and agricultural companies.
  • Background notes on tissue engineering
    • Autografting (transplantation from self)
    • Allografting (transplantation from another)
    • Man-made materials, devices
    • The importance of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and protein expression (proteomics) in cell cultures differentiating into organs and tissues (specific structures).
    • Scaffold-guided tissue regeneration
      • Insert scaffold with specific ECM plus stem cells to help mend malfunctioning/broken tissue in an existing body.
    • Solid Free Form fabrication (SFF)
  • Engineering human tissue
  • tissue-engineering.gov
  • Wikipedia re: tissue engineering
  • Organ printing
  • Lab-grown meat in 5 years?
    • Jason Matheny, lead author of a paper on in vitro meat production in a June 2006 issue of the scientific journal Tissue Engineering
    • Test tube meat
    • "Matheny says the technology isn't new. Medical researchers have long been able to grow muscle tissue in the lab. Factory-grown meat just adapts this technology to industrial-scale meat production. Matheny says it's a logical extension of technology-driven agriculture."
    • Douglas McFarland @ South Dakota State University -- disagrees
    • How it's done -- "The first step to growing muscle tissue in the lab is to harvest satellite cells — precursors to muscle cells — from a cow using a biopsy. The cells are then put into a vat of “nutritious soup,” Matheny says. “Over a period of days, the cells divide into millions of daughter cells, just like the original. These are poured onto a sheet with thin grooves in it, which is placed in a bioreactor to grow.” Muscle cells need to be stretched to grow and develop properly. If not, they have a texture closer to cooked oatmeal than meat. The simplest way to simulate exercise is by flexing the sheets the cells are grown on. Just flexing the sheets by 10% every few minutes is enough to cause the cells to align and fuse into myofibers. Eventually, over a couple of weeks, you have a thin layer of muscle tissue. Current technology only allows the growth of very thin layers of tissue, which would be suitable for grinding into such traditionally processed meats as hamburger, sausage, chicken nuggets or fish sticks. While current technology could produce a product with an identical flavor and texture to existing processed meats, it's nowhere close to being able to produce a steak. To grow large, three-dimensional pieces of tissue, it's necessary to grow blood vessels to supply nutrients to interior cells."
    • Researchers in the Netherlands have narrowed down the growth medium to four types of mushrooms. Most researchers are working with calf serum, but this produces a few mm of tissue instead of many centimeters.
    • "Producing the meat supply in a highly secure, sterile environment, such as a pharmaceutical bioreactor, also would dramatically lower the risk of bacterial contamination or disease."
      • "Highly secure, sterile environment." What would this sterility mean ? To what extent? What cleaning methods would be needed?
        • Worst case scenario: ultra-high vacuum (UHV) or 'cooking' (the same thing used to clean UHVs).
  • Fetal farming
    • Some people want to ban 'fetal farming' where tissue is harvested from fetuses. However, this is largely arbitrary and assumes that a typical life form is going to be progressing from a fetal form into another form -- and this is simply not true if we are able to engineer stem cells that perpetually stay in a young state, so this aging limiter is mostly nonsense. Don't worry.
  • In vitro meat
    • "Cultivated Meat: The Dutch cultivate minced meat in a petri dish."
    • "The article states that the universities of Eindhoven, Utrecht and Amsterdam are working to cultivate muscles out of the stem cells of a pig, and that the Senter/Novem Institute of the Department of Economic Affairs has allotted a two million euro subsidy for a project to cultivate pork meat out of stem cells."
    • Dr. Henk Haagsman, Professor of Meat Sciences at the University of Utrecht
    • "It appears that the first research into in vitro meat was performed by M. A. Benjaminson from Touro College. His research group managed to grow muscle tissue from goldfish in a laboratory setting with several kinds of growth media."
    • "Wired magazine quotes Paul Kosnik, vice president of engineering at Tissue Genesis in Hawaii: "All of the technology exists today to make ground meat products in vitro." Kosnik is growing scaffold-free, self-assembled muscle. "We believe the goal of a processed meat product is attainable in the next five years if funding is available and the R&D is pursued aggressively." "In the meantime, we can use existing technologies to satisfy the demand for ground meat, which is about half of the meat we eat (and a $127 billion global market)," says Matheny, a University of Maryland doctoral student and a director of New Harvest."
    • The research described above is based on stem cells, scaffolding technology and bioreactors. Ink-jet printers are a recent addition to the toolbox for in vitro meat which are gaining more attention. Muscle and bone cell differentiation can be engineered with aid of such printers. A Pittsburgh University press release from December 2006 states: “A Pittsburgh-based research team has created and used an innovative ink-jet system to print ‘bio-ink’ patterns that direct muscle-derived stem cells from adult mice to differentiate into both muscle cells and bone cells.”
  • Steak incubators turned down by NASA
    • Vladimir Mironov, head of the Medical University of South Carolina’s (MUSC) Shared Tissue Engineering Laboratory
      • Was going to grow steak from cell cultures for astronauts in orbit.
        • Turned down for ... protein pills. Yeah.
    • "He suggests using a bioreactor with a branching network of hundreds of tiny edible tubes that act like artificial capillaries to convey nutrients to the growing meat. But to satisfy those who crave the texture and mouthfeel of a good steak, you need to develop something that mimics the texture of real meat. That means generating a complex structure of muscle and connective tissue, and to do that, the muscle myoblasts need to stretch and contract regularly. In other words, not only must you feed your steak well, you have to give it plenty of exercise too."
    • Biopsy your own tissue
      • Eat yourself. (Vegetarians -- no more problems, right?)
    • Growth of cardiovascular replacement tissues
      • A bioreactor is a key element of cardiovascular tissue engineering technologies. Increased use of stem cells as a cell source in cardiovascular tissue engineering is transforming this field into an in vitro approach that seeks to accelerate recapitulation of in vivo embryonic vascular development. The purpose and goal of existing bioreactors are to provide the pulsatile flow through an engineered construct and thus to generate periodic radial distension (circumferential strain) of the vessel wall. The important mechanical element of embryonic vascular development is longitudinal strain associated with arterial longitudinal growth. Thus, in order to "biomimic" the embryonic mechanical vascular environment (EMVE), perfusion bioreactor must also include the functional capacity for longitudinal strain. To accomplish this, we have developed a novel perfusion bioreactor. This bioreactor was designed and fabricated to provide the simulation of the EMVE including capacities for both circumferential and longitudinal strain of cardiovascular engineered tubular constructs. Results indicate this new bioreactor can provide the new critical component of biomechanical conditioning which is essential to mimic EMVE and accelerate vascular wall histogenesis.
    • Problems that need to be solved in tissue engineering.
    • Gravity and muscle development
    • Biomechatronics Tissue Engineering Vision for the Future
      • Imagine the technology to seamlessly integrate hybrid prosthetic devices with their human users. Instead of bulky and ineffective synthetic mechanisms, prosthetic devices could have tissues integrated directly into them. One of our primary objectives is to integrate living muscle actuators into prosthetic devices. As the art and science of tissue engineering evolves, so too will the hybrid prosthetic devices, incorporating a greater percentage of more sophisticated engineered tissues, until the device eventually becomes fully biologic. We are working on the technology to grow the engineered tissues from small samples of the native tissue of the user, so that when complete the engineered prosthetic device will be fully compatible with the user, employing no foreign biological elements. Imagine engineered tissues that can fully replace injured tissue, or be used for the surgical correction of congenital deformity. Imagine the end of animal testing. New drugs and surgical procedures will be tested directly on engineered tissues. Tissues will be grown from small samples of cells without requiring animals to be killed. New drugs and procedures can be tested on human tissues that are engineered in culture, eliminating the cost and clinical uncertainty of animal testing. Imagine engineered meat as a food source, eliminating the need for raising and slaughtering livestock. Imagine a world with living computers, robots, and other devices, that operate silently and efficiently, are fault tolerant and can heal themselves, can adapt to their environment, are energy efficient, produce no harmful byproducts, and are 100% biodegradable. Humans will be able to interact with their creations in ways never dreamed possible. Imagine the day when clattering, inefficient, synthetic electro-mechanical contrivances seem quaint and frivolous. From the first time that a proto-human grasped the first stone tool and used it to shape the environment, the use of living tissues as tools has been set in our destiny.
    • Engineering functional skeletal muscle
    • Uh -- cannibalism in China and here too.
  • Paper on cultured meats [pdf]
  • New-Harvest -- for the scientific advancement of in vitro meat (lab grown meat on a stick)
  • Slashdot on lab-grown meat
    • Nothing intensely insightful here. Hype-reaction stuff.
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Bioreactors

The incubation chambers for artificial meats usually consists of a porous sponge-like material that is able to get nutrients to the mycoytes for bricked tissue. From Wikipedia: "Bioreactors: Nutrients and oxygen need to be delivered close to each growing cell, on the scale of millimeters. In animals this job is handled by blood vessels. A bioreactor should emulate this function in an efficient manner. The usual approach is the creation of a sponge-like matrix in which the cells can grow, and perfusing it with the growth medium." A pump and filter will probably be necessary, else there is no guarantee that the nutrients will diffuse in the general directions of the cells.

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Papers

query: differentiation bovine "skeletal muscle"


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Regulation of Distinct Stages of Skeletal Muscle Differentiation by Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases =

  • BibTeX:
  • The signal transduction pathway or pathways linking extracellular signals to myogenesisare poorly defined. Upon mitogen withdrawal from C2C12 myoblasts, the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) p42Erk2 is inactivated concomitant with up-regulationof muscle-specific genes. Overexpression of MAPK phosphatase-1 (MKP-1) inhibitedp42Erk2 activity and was sufficient to relieve the inhibitory effects of mitogens onmuscle-specific gene expression. Later during myogenesis, endogenous expression ofMKP-1 decreased. MKP-1 overexpression during differentiation prevented myotubeformation despite appropriate expression of myosin heavy chain. This indicates that muscle-specific gene expression is necessary but not sufficient to commit differentiated myocytes to myotubes and suggests a function for the MAPKs during the early and latestages of skeletal muscle differentiation
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Increases Ligand-Dependent Proliferation and Differentiation in Bovine Skeletal Myogenic Cultures

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Regulatory Genes During Activation, Proliferation, and Differentiation of Rat Skeletal Muscle …

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The role of microRNA-1 and microRNA-133 in skeletal muscle proliferation and differentiation

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Calcineurin Activity Is Required for the Initiation of Skeletal Muscle Differentiation

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Cadherins Promote Skeletal Muscle Differentiation in Three-dimensional Cultures

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N-cadherin Promotes the Commitment and Differentiation of Skeletal Muscle Precursor Cells

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A Second Look at Fiber Type Differentiation in Porcine Skeletal Muscle

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Skeletal muscle determination and differentiation: story of a core regulatory network and its …

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In vitro differentiation of embryonic stem cells

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The smooth muscle cell in culture

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Stimulation of Slow Skeletal Muscle Fiber Gene Expression by Calcineurin in Vivo

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Acetylcholine receptors of muscle grown in vitro.

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Growth comparisons of oysters, mussels and scallops cultivated on algae grown with artificial medium and treated sewage effluent

PDF here.

    • BibTeX:
    • ABSTRACT: Shell growth, dry-meat weight, and mortality of the American oyster (Crassostrea virginica), the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) and the bay scallop (Aequipecten irradiens) cultured for 3 months on algae grown in artificial medium and in secondary treated sewage effluent exhibited no significant differences. (Effluent is okay since we will always be able to generate waste.)
    • For example, Butler et al. (1962) stated that sublethal concentrations of the chlorinated hydrocarbons dieldrin and endrin significantly inhibited oyster growth. Galtsoff and Chipman (1947) showed that sulphate pulp mill wastes lessened the growth rate of oysters by reducing the amount of time the oysters pumped and therefore fed. Engel et al. (1970) observed changes in concentrations of enzymes associated with glycolysis in the quahog, Mercenaria mercenaria, and suggested that chronic sublethal doses of DDT and lindane interfered with gluconeogenesis and adversely affected metabolic processes. Tensides, persisting from biodegradable detergents, are another class of substances shown to be toxic at high concentrations to marine organisms (Mann, 1970) and can possibly inhibit gill functioning of filter feeders at sublethal levels. Both earlier work on the control of fouling organisms (Clarke, 1947) and more recent investigations (Bryan, 1971) have demonstrated the adverse affect of many metals on marine invertebrates.
    • Each of six travs (32 x 28 x 12.5 cm deep) containing 9 liters of sea water received an average flow rate of 300 ml per minute of sea water at ambient temperature (7 to 16 C) and filtered with 25-p Ultipor filter units to reduce fouling organisms. A set of three of the trays, containing 20 oysters, 20 mussels and 10 scallops respectively, was fed daily with an average of 7 liters of algae grown in a 10% dilution of secondary-treated sewage effluent (Dunstan and Menzel, 1971).
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See also

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